## `mod` and the Filesystem

We’ll start our module example by making a new project with Cargo, but instead
of creating a binary crate, we’ll make a library crate: a project that other
people can pull into their projects as a dependency. For example, the `rand`
crate discussed in Chapter 2 is a library crate that we used as a dependency in
the guessing game project.

We’ll create a skeleton of a library that provides some general networking
functionality; we’ll concentrate on the organization of the modules and
functions, but we won’t worry about what code goes in the function bodies.
We’ll call our library `communicator`. To create a library, pass the `--lib`
option instead of `--bin`:

```text
$ cargo new communicator --lib
$ cd communicator
```

Notice that Cargo generated *src/lib.rs* instead of *src/main.rs*. Inside
*src/lib.rs* we’ll find the following:

<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>

```rust
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    #[test]
    fn it_works() {
        assert_eq!(2 + 2, 4);
    }
}
```

Cargo creates an example test to help us get our library started, rather than
the “Hello, world!” binary that we get when we use the `--bin` option. We’ll
look at the `#[]` and `mod tests` syntax in the “Using `super` to Access a
Parent Module” section later in this chapter, but for now, leave this code at
the bottom of *src/lib.rs*.

Because we don’t have a *src/main.rs* file, there’s nothing for Cargo to
execute with the `cargo run` command. Therefore, we’ll use the `cargo build`
command to compile our library crate’s code.

We’ll look at different options for organizing your library’s code that will be
suitable in a variety of situations, depending on the intent of the code.

### Module Definitions

For our `communicator` networking library, we’ll first define a module named
`network` that contains the definition of a function called `connect`. Every
module definition in Rust starts with the `mod` keyword. Add this code to the
beginning of the *src/lib.rs* file, above the test code:

<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>

```rust
mod network {
    fn connect() {
    }
}
```

After the `mod` keyword, we put the name of the module, `network`, and then a
block of code in curly brackets. Everything inside this block is inside the
namespace `network`. In this case, we have a single function, `connect`. If we
wanted to call this function from code outside the `network` module, we
would need to specify the module and use the namespace syntax `::` like so:
`network::connect()`.

We can also have multiple modules, side by side, in the same *src/lib.rs* file.
For example, to also have a `client` module that has a function named
`connect`, we can add it as shown in Listing 7-1.

<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>

```rust
mod network {
    fn connect() {
    }
}

mod client {
    fn connect() {
    }
}
```

<span class="caption">Listing 7-1: The `network` module and the `client` module
defined side by side in *src/lib.rs*</span>

Now we have a `network::connect` function and a `client::connect` function.
These can have completely different functionality, and the function names do
not conflict with each other because they’re in different modules.

In this case, because we’re building a library, the file that serves as the
entry point for building our library is *src/lib.rs*. However, in respect to
creating modules, there’s nothing special about *src/lib.rs*. We could also
create modules in *src/main.rs* for a binary crate in the same way as we’re
creating modules in *src/lib.rs* for the library crate. In fact, we can put
modules inside of modules, which can be useful as your modules grow to keep
related functionality organized together and separate functionality apart. The
way you choose to organize your code depends on how you think about the
relationship between the parts of your code. For instance, the `client` code
and its `connect` function might make more sense to users of our library if
they were inside the `network` namespace instead, as in Listing 7-2.

<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>

```rust
mod network {
    fn connect() {
    }

    mod client {
        fn connect() {
        }
    }
}
```

<span class="caption">Listing 7-2: Moving the `client` module inside the
`network` module</span>

In your *src/lib.rs* file, replace the existing `mod network` and `mod client`
definitions with the ones in Listing 7-2, which have the `client` module as an
inner module of `network`. The functions `network::connect` and
`network::client::connect` are both named `connect`, but they don’t conflict
with each other because they’re in different namespaces.

In this way, modules form a hierarchy. The contents of *src/lib.rs* are at the
topmost level, and the submodules are at lower levels. Here’s what the
organization of our example in Listing 7-1 looks like when thought of as a
hierarchy:

```text
communicator
 ├── network
 └── client
```

And here’s the hierarchy corresponding to the example in Listing 7-2:

```text
communicator
 └── network
     └── client
```

The hierarchy shows that in Listing 7-2, `client` is a child of the `network`
module rather than a sibling. More complicated projects can have many modules,
and they’ll need to be organized logically in order for you to keep track of
them. What “logically” means in your project is up to you and depends on how
you and your library’s users think about your project’s domain. Use the
techniques shown here to create side-by-side modules and nested modules in
whatever structure you would like.

### Moving Modules to Other Files

Modules form a hierarchical structure, much like another structure in computing
that you’re used to: filesystems! We can use Rust’s module system along with
multiple files to split up Rust projects so not everything lives in
*src/lib.rs* or *src/main.rs*. For this example, let’s start with the code in
Listing 7-3.

<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>

```rust
mod client {
    fn connect() {
    }
}

mod network {
    fn connect() {
    }

    mod server {
        fn connect() {
        }
    }
}
```

<span class="caption">Listing 7-3: Three modules, `client`, `network`, and
`network::server`, all defined in *src/lib.rs*</span>

The file *src/lib.rs* has this module hierarchy:

```text
communicator
 ├── client
 └── network
     └── server
```

If these modules had many functions, and those functions were becoming lengthy,
it would be difficult to scroll through this file to find the code we wanted to
work with. Because the functions are nested inside one or more `mod` blocks,
the lines of code inside the functions will start getting lengthy as well.
These would be good reasons to separate the `client`, `network`, and `server`
modules from *src/lib.rs* and place them into their own files.

First, let’s replace the `client` module code with only the declaration of the
`client` module so that *src/lib.rs* looks like code shown in Listing 7-4.

<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>

```rust,ignore
mod client;

mod network {
    fn connect() {
    }

    mod server {
        fn connect() {
        }
    }
}
```

<span class="caption">Listing 7-4: Extracting the contents of the `client` module but leaving the declaration in *src/lib.rs*</span>

We’re still *declaring* the `client` module here, but by replacing the block
with a semicolon, we’re telling Rust to look in another location for the code
defined within the scope of the `client` module. In other words, the line `mod
client;` means this:

```rust,ignore
mod client {
    // contents of client.rs
}
```

Now we need to create the external file with that module name. Create a
*client.rs* file in your *src/* directory and open it. Then enter the
following, which is the `connect` function in the `client` module that we
removed in the previous step:

<span class="filename">Filename: src/client.rs</span>

```rust
fn connect() {
}
```

Note that we don’t need a `mod` declaration in this file because we already
declared the `client` module with `mod` in *src/lib.rs*. This file just
provides the *contents* of the `client` module. If we put a `mod client` here,
we’d be giving the `client` module its own submodule named `client`!

Rust only knows to look in *src/lib.rs* by default. If we want to add more
files to our project, we need to tell Rust in *src/lib.rs* to look in other
files; this is why `mod client` needs to be defined in *src/lib.rs* and can’t
be defined in *src/client.rs*.

Now the project should compile successfully, although you’ll get a few
warnings. Remember to use `cargo build` instead of `cargo run` because we have
a library crate rather than a binary crate:

```text
$ cargo build
   Compiling communicator v0.1.0 (file:///projects/communicator)
warning: function is never used: `connect`
 --> src/client.rs:1:1
  |
1 | / fn connect() {
2 | | }
  | |_^
  |
  = note: #[warn(dead_code)] on by default

warning: function is never used: `connect`
 --> src/lib.rs:4:5
  |
4 | /     fn connect() {
5 | |     }
  | |_____^

warning: function is never used: `connect`
 --> src/lib.rs:8:9
  |
8 | /         fn connect() {
9 | |         }
  | |_________^
```

These warnings tell us that we have functions that are never used. Don’t worry
about these warnings for now; we’ll address them later in this chapter in the
“Controlling Visibility with `pub`” section. The good news is that they’re just
warnings; our project built successfully!

Next, let’s extract the `network` module into its own file using the same
pattern. In *src/lib.rs*, delete the body of the `network` module and add a
semicolon to the declaration, like so:

<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>

```rust,ignore
mod client;

mod network;
```

Then create a new *src/network.rs* file and enter the following:

<span class="filename">Filename: src/network.rs</span>

```rust
fn connect() {
}

mod server {
    fn connect() {
    }
}
```

Notice that we still have a `mod` declaration within this module file; this is
because we still want `server` to be a submodule of `network`.

Run `cargo build` again. Success! We have one more module to extract: `server`.
Because it’s a submodule—that is, a module within a module—our current tactic
of extracting a module into a file named after that module won’t work. We’ll
try anyway so you can see the error. First, change *src/network.rs* to have
`mod server;` instead of the `server` module’s contents:

<span class="filename">Filename: src/network.rs</span>

```rust,ignore
fn connect() {
}

mod server;
```

Then create a *src/server.rs* file and enter the contents of the `server`
module that we extracted:

<span class="filename">Filename: src/server.rs</span>

```rust
fn connect() {
}
```

When we try to run `cargo build`, we’ll get the error shown in Listing 7-5.

```text
$ cargo build
   Compiling communicator v0.1.0 (file:///projects/communicator)
error: cannot declare a new module at this location
 --> src/network.rs:4:5
  |
4 | mod server;
  |     ^^^^^^
  |
note: maybe move this module `src/network.rs` to its own directory via `src/network/mod.rs`
 --> src/network.rs:4:5
  |
4 | mod server;
  |     ^^^^^^
note: ... or maybe `use` the module `server` instead of possibly redeclaring it
 --> src/network.rs:4:5
  |
4 | mod server;
  |     ^^^^^^
```

<span class="caption">Listing 7-5: Error when trying to extract the `server`
submodule into *src/server.rs*</span>

The error says we `cannot declare a new module at this location` and is
pointing to the `mod server;` line in *src/network.rs*. So *src/network.rs* is
different than *src/lib.rs* somehow: keep reading to understand why.

The note in the middle of Listing 7-5 is actually very helpful because it
points out something we haven’t yet talked about doing:

```text
note: maybe move this module `network` to its own directory via
`network/mod.rs`
```

Instead of continuing to follow the same file-naming pattern we used
previously, we can do what the note suggests:

1. Make a new *directory* named *network*, the parent module’s name.
2. Move the *src/network.rs* file into the new *network* directory and
   rename it *src/network/mod.rs*.
3. Move the submodule file *src/server.rs* into the *network* directory.

Here are commands to carry out these steps:

```text
$ mkdir src/network
$ mv src/network.rs src/network/mod.rs
$ mv src/server.rs src/network
```

Now when we try to run `cargo build`, compilation will work (we’ll still have
warnings, though). Our module layout still looks exactly the same as it did when
we had all the code in *src/lib.rs* in Listing 7-3:

```text
communicator
 ├── client
 └── network
     └── server
```

The corresponding file layout now looks like this:

```text
└── src
    ├── client.rs
    ├── lib.rs
    └── network
        ├── mod.rs
        └── server.rs
```

So when we wanted to extract the `network::server` module, why did we have to
also change the *src/network.rs* file to the *src/network/mod.rs* file and put
the code for `network::server` in the *network* directory in
*src/network/server.rs*? Why couldn’t we just extract the `network::server`
module into *src/server.rs*? The reason is that Rust wouldn’t be able to
recognize that `server` was supposed to be a submodule of `network` if the
*server.rs* file was in the *src* directory. To clarify Rust’s behavior here,
let’s consider a different example with the following module hierarchy, where
all the definitions are in *src/lib.rs*:

```text
communicator
 ├── client
 └── network
     └── client
```

In this example, we have three modules again: `client`, `network`, and
`network::client`. Following the same steps we did earlier for extracting
modules into files, we would create *src/client.rs* for the `client` module.
For the `network` module, we would create *src/network.rs*. But we wouldn’t be
able to extract the `network::client` module into a *src/client.rs* file
because that already exists for the top-level `client` module! If we could put
the code for *both* the `client` and `network::client` modules in the
*src/client.rs* file, Rust wouldn’t have any way to know whether the code was
for `client` or for `network::client`.

Therefore, in order to extract a file for the `network::client` submodule of
the `network` module, we needed to create a directory for the `network` module
instead of a *src/network.rs* file. The code that is in the `network` module
then goes into the *src/network/mod.rs* file, and the submodule
`network::client` can have its own *src/network/client.rs* file. Now the
top-level *src/client.rs* is unambiguously the code that belongs to the
`client` module.

### Rules of Module Filesystems

Let’s summarize the rules of modules with regard to files:

* If a module named `foo` has no submodules, you should put the declarations
  for `foo` in a file named *foo.rs*.
* If a module named `foo` does have submodules, you should put the declarations
  for `foo` in a file named *foo/mod.rs*.

These rules apply recursively, so if a module named `foo` has a submodule named
`bar` and `bar` does not have submodules, you should have the following files
in your *src* directory:

```text
└── foo
    ├── bar.rs (contains the declarations in `foo::bar`)
    └── mod.rs (contains the declarations in `foo`, including `mod bar`)
```

The modules should be declared in their parent module’s file using the `mod`
keyword.

Next, we’ll talk about the `pub` keyword and get rid of those warnings!
